ARTICULO MEDICO:Treatment of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in term and late preterm infants

Treatment of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in term and late preterm infants

Authors

Ronald J Wong, BA

Vinod K Bhutani, MD, FAAP

Section Editor

Steven A Abrams, MD

Deputy Editor

Melanie S Kim, MD

Disclosures

All topics are updated as new evidence becomes available and our peer review process is complete.

Literature review current through: Jan 2013. | This topic last updated: feb 20, 2013.

INTRODUCTION — Almost all newborn infants develop a total serum or plasma bilirubin (TB) valuegreater than 1 mg/dL (17 micromol/L), which is the upper limit of normal for adults. As TB increases,it produces neonatal jaundice, the yellowish discoloration of the skin and/or sclerae caused bybilirubin deposition in half of all newborn infants [1].

Hyperbilirubinemia in infants ≥35 weeks gestational age is defined as TB >95th percentile on the

hour-specific Bhutani nomogram [2]. 

Nomogram of hour-specific serum total bilirubin (STB) concentration in healthy term and near-term newborns

The red, blue, and green lines denote the 95th, 75th, and 40th percentiles, respectively. Risk zones are designated according to percentile: high (STB ≥95th), high intermediate (95th >STB ≥75th), low intermediate (75th >STB ≥40th), and low (STB <40th are="" at="" class="footnotes" clinically="" development="" div="" for="" high="" hyperbilirubinemia="" in="" increased="" infants="" intervention.="" of="" requiring="" risk="" significant="" style="font-size: 0.85em; word-wrap: break-word;" the="" values="" with="" zone="">

Reproduced with permission from Subcommittee on Hyperbilirubinemia. Management of Hyperbilirubinemia in the Newborn Infant 35 or More Weeks of Gestation. Pediatrics 2004; 114:297. Copyright © 2004 The American Academy of Pediatrics.

Hyperbilirubinemia with a TB >25 to 32 mg/dL (428 to 547micromol/L) is associated with an increased risk for bilirubin-induced neurologic dysfunction (BIND),which occurs when bilirubin crosses the blood-brain barrier and binds to brain tissue. The term "acute bilirubin encephalopathy" (ABE) is used to describe the acute manifestations of BIND. The term "kernicterus" is used to describe the chronic and permanent sequelae of BIND. Appropriate intervention is important to consider in every infant with severe hyperbilirubinemia. However, even if these infants are adequately treated, long-term neurologic sequelae (kernicterus) can sometimes develop. The treatment of neonatal unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia is reviewed here. The clinical manifestations, evaluation, pathogenesis, and etiology of this disorder are discussed separately.

(See "Clinical manifestations of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in term and late preterm infants" and "Evaluation of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in term and late preterm infants" and "Pathogenesis and etiology of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in the newborn".)

OVERVIEW — Two advances in medical care had a significant impact on the need for treatment and the way in which hyperbilirubinemia is managed. The administration of Rh (D) immunoglobulin to Rh-negative mothers in the late 1960s decreased dramatically the incidence of neonatal Rh isoimmune hemolytic disease. At about the same time, the introduction of phototherapy in the United States reduced significantly the need for exchange transfusions and the risk of severe hyperbilirubinemia. Thus, the risk of kernicterus was significantly reduced from its peak incidence in the 1950s to the 1970s. Nevertheless, isolated cases of kernicterus, a preventable condition, continue to be reported. (See "Clinical manifestations of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in term and late preterm infants", section on 'Overview'.)

Limited data based upon case reports suggest that kernicterus occurs in term or late preterm infants with hyperbilirubinemia, defined as TB >95th percentile on the hour-specific Bhutani nomogram [2]. In order to prevent future cases of kernicterus, the management of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia focuses on two key elements:

· Prevention of hyperbilirubinemia by identifying at risk infants and initiation of preventive therapeutic interventions (eg, phototherapy) as needed

· Reduction of TB in infants with severe hyperbilirubinemia

Prevention of hyperbilirubinemia — Universal screening of all term and late preterm infants identifies at-risk infants for hyperbilirubinemia. In these patients, phototherapy is initiated to prevent hyperbilirubinemia when TB exceeds a threshold level based upon a nomogram of TB levels adjusted by the infant's age-in-hours [3] and the presence or absence of additional risk factors . (See "Evaluation of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in term and late preterm infants" and 'Phototherapy indications' below.)

Treatment of severe hyperbilirubinemia — Therapeutic interventions for infants with hyperbilirubinemia include:

· Phototherapy

· Exchange transfusion

· Improving the frequency and efficacy of breastfeeding or supplementing inadequate breastfeeding with formula.

PHOTOTHERAPY — Phototherapy is the most commonly used intervention to treat and prevent severe hyperbilirubinemia. In term and large preterm infants, phototherapy is safe based upon its extensive use in millions of infants over 30 years and only rare reports of significant toxicity [2]. (See 'Adverse effects' below.)

Phototherapy reduces the risk that TB concentration will reach the level at which exchange transfusion is recommended [4,5]. It decreases or blunts the rise of TB in almost all cases of hyperbilirubinemia regardless of the patient's ethnicity or the etiology of hyperbilirubinemia. It is estimated that 5 to 10 infants with TB between 15 and 20 mg/dL (257 to 342 micromol/L) must receive phototherapy to prevent one patient from developing a TB >20 mg/dL (342 micromol/L). (See 'Efficacy' below and 'Exchange transfusion' below.)

Mechanisms — Phototherapy exposes the infant's skin to light of a specific wavelength, which reduces TB by the following three mechanisms:

· Structural isomerization to lumirubin – Phototherapy converts bilirubin into lumirubin via structural isomerization that is not reversible [6]. Lumirubin, a more soluble substance than bilirubin, is excreted without conjugation into bile and urine. This is the principal mechanism by which phototherapy reduces TB concentration.

· Photo-isomerization to a less toxic bilirubin isomer – Phototherapy converts the stable 4Z,15Z bilirubin isomer to the 4Z,15E isomer, which is more polar and less toxic than the 4Z,15Z form. Like lumirubin, 4Z,15E isomer is excreted into bile without conjugation. Unlike structural isomerization to lumirubin, photoisomerization is reversible, however, clearance of the 4Z,15E isomer is very slow and the photoisomerization is reversible. Thus, some of the 4Z,15E isomer in bile is converted back to the stable 4Z,15Z isomer. As a result, this pathway may have little effect on TB values. In addition, standard laboratory measurements do not distinguish among the isomers, so these measurements do not reflect these changes. Nevertheless, photoisomerization does reduce the amount of potentially toxic bilirubin by rapidly converting 15 percent of it to a non-toxic form.

· Photo-oxidation to polar molecules – Photo-oxidation reactions convert bilirubin to colorless, polar compounds that are excreted primarily in the urine. This is a slow process and accounts for a small proportion of bilirubin elimination.

Technique — The dose of phototherapy, known as irradiance (measured in microW/cm2/nm), determines its efficacy. Irradiance depends upon the type of the light used, distance between the light and infant (except with light emitting diodes), and the exposed surface area of the infant.

Irradiance usually is expressed for a certain wavelength band (spectral irradiance) [7]. In conventional phototherapy, the irradiance dosing is typically 6 to 12 microW/cm2 of body surface area exposed per nm of wavelength (425 to 475 nm) and with intensive phototherapy it is ≥30 microW/cm2/nm. For TB levels ≥20 mg/dL (342 micromol/L), phototherapy should be administered continuously, until the TB falls below 20 mg/dL (342 micromol/L). Once this occurs, phototherapy can be interrupted for feeding and parental visits. During phototherapy, the area covered by the diaper should be minimized. The eyes should be shielded with an opaque blindfold and care should be taken to prevent the blindfold from covering the nose. With fluorescent lights, the infant should be placed in an open crib, bassinet, or on a warmer, rather than in an incubator (the top of the incubator prevents the light from being brought sufficiently close to the infant). Lining the sides of the bassinet or warmer with aluminum foil or white material increases the exposed surface area of the infant and the efficiency of phototherapy [8,9].

The use of reflective white curtains around the phototherapy light source has also been shown to increase phototherapy efficiency [10].

Light sources and devices — Bilirubin absorbs light most strongly in the blue region of the spectrum near 460 nm. Several light sources, utilizing different wavelengths of light and varying degrees of irradiance, and devices are available for phototherapy.

· Fluorescent blue light – Fluorescent special blue light, F20 T12/BB and TL52 tubes (Philips, The Netherlands), should be used. They are the most effective light source in lowering TB because they deliver light in the blue-green spectrum, which penetrates the skin well and is absorbed maximally. Fluorescent special blue light should not be confused with regular blue light or blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs).

· Halogen white light – Halogen white lamps are hot and can cause thermal injury. They should be placed at the distance from the patient recommended by the manufacturer.

· Fiberoptic blankets or pads – Fiberoptic blankets or pads generate little heat and can be placed close to the infant, providing higher irradiance than do fluorescent lights [11].

However, blankets are small and rarely cover sufficient surface area to be effective when used alone in term infants. They can be used as an adjunct to overhead fluorescent or halogen lights. Fiberoptic blankets also can be used during feedings when overhead fluorescent or halogen lights are discontinued. This is particularly helpful for infants with severe hyperbilirubinemia.

· Blue LEDs – LEDs use high-intensity blue gallium nitride and are commercially available as both overhead and underneath devices [7,12,13]. These devices, which deliver high intensity narrow band light in the absorption spectrum of bilirubin, are as effective as conventional fluorescent blue light [14,15]. The mattress LED device is preferable to the fiberoptic pad because it is large enough to cover the entire surface (in contact with the mattress) of a term infant.

For effective (intensive) phototherapy, high levels of irradiance (usually ≥30 microW/cm2/nm) are delivered to as much of the infant's surface area as possible [2]. The necessary irradiance can be achieved with a bank of special blue fluorescent lights placed at a distance of 10 to 30 cm from the infant's body depending on the manufacturer’s recommendation and a fiberoptic pad, LED mattress, or special blue lights below the infant [16]. LEDs at the distance dictated by the device also provide an irradiance of 30 microW/cm2/nm.

Although there are no trials comparing the efficacy of phototherapy devices in term and late preterm infants, a trial in extremely low birth weight preterm infants (birth weight ≤1000 g) found that the absolute and relative decrease of TB during the first 24 hours of life was greatest for LEDs, followed by spotlights, bank of lights, and blankets [17]. (See "Hyperbilirubinemia in the premature infant (less than 35 weeks gestation)".)

Home phototherapy — As an alternative to readmission to the hospital, phototherapy can be administered to term infants at home. Home phototherapy is less disruptive to the family and can be considered for otherwise healthy term infants (>38 weeks gestational age [GA]) without hemolysis or other risk factors who have TB levels 2 to 3 mg/dL (34 to 51 micromol/L) below the recommended threshold level for initiation of hospital phototherapy, are feeding well, and can be closely followed [2]. (See 'Phototherapy indications' below.)

Sunlight exposure — Although exposure to sunlight provides sufficient irradiance in the 425 to 475 nm band and is known to lower the TB [18], exposure to sunlight is not recommended to prevent severe hyperbilirubinemia [2]. The difficulties of avoiding sunburn while exposing a naked infant to sunlight preclude the use of sunlight exposure as a reliable therapeutic option.

Selection of light source — Although there is a wide selection of commercially available phototherapy devices, there are no standardized methods of reporting and measuring phototherapy devices. (See 'Light sources and devices' above.) In order to help guide clinicians and hospitals to provide the most “effective phototherapy,” a technical report from the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) summarized the key features to consider in the selection of a device to treat neonatal hyperbilirubinemia [16]. After review of the available literature, the report concluded that the most effective devices displayed the following characteristics:

· Emission of light in the blue-to-green range (460 to 490 nm). Lights with broader emission also will work, but not as effectively.

· Irradiance of at least 30 microW/cm2/nm (confirmed by an appropriate irradiance meter calibrated over the appropriate wavelength range).

· Ability to illuminate maximal body surface. Blocking the light source or reducing the exposed body surface area should be avoided.

· Demonstration of a decrease in TB during the first four to six hours of exposure Phototherapy indications — The following discussion on the indications for phototherapy for term and late preterm infants (≥35 weeks GA) is based upon the practice guideline developed by the AAP [2]. Similar guidelines for term infants based on TB and postnatal age have been developed by the United Kingdom’s National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE guideline for Neonatal Jaundice). National guidelines have also been developed in Norway, which are based on TB values, birth weight (BW), and postnatal age [19].

Initiation of phototherapy is based upon hour-specific TB values [3], GA, and the presence or absence of risk factors that include isoimmune hemolytic disease, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency, asphyxia, lethargy, temperature instability, sepsis, acidosis, or albumin damage because of their negative effects on albumin binding of bilirubin, the blood-brain barrier, and the susceptibility of the brain cells to damage by bilirubin. (See "Evaluation of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in term and late preterm infants", section on 'Risk assessment' and "Evaluation of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in term and late preterm infants", section on 'Bilirubin/albumin ratio'.)

The risk for severe hyperbilirubinemia and the threshold for intervention based upon the hourspecific bilirubin value may be determined using the newborn hyperbilirubinemia assessment

calculator (calculator 1). In general, the guidelines for phototherapy are as follows:

· For infants at low risk (≥38 weeks GA and without risk factors), phototherapy is started at the following TB values.

· 24 hours of age: >12 mg/dL (205 micromol/L)

· 48 hours of age: >15 mg/dL (257 micromol/L)

· 72 hours of age: >18 mg/dL (308 micromol/L)

Infants in this category who have TB levels 2 to 3 mg/dL (34 to 51 micromol/L) below the recommended levels may be treated with fiberoptic or conventional phototherapy at home.

· For infants at medium risk (≥38 weeks GA with risk factors or 35 to 37 6/7 weeks gestation

without risk factors), phototherapy is started at the following TB values.

· 24 hours of age: >10 mg/dL (171 micromol/L)

· 48 hours of age: >13 mg/dL (222 micromol/L)

· 72 hours of age: >15 mg/dL (257 micromol/L)

The threshold for intervention may be lowered for infants closer to 35 weeks GA and raised for those closer to 37 6/7 weeks GA.

· For infants at high risk (35 to 37 6/7 weeks GA with risk factors), phototherapy is initiated at the following TB values.

· 24 hours of age: >8 mg/dL (137 micromol/L)

· 48 hours of age: >11 mg/dL (188 micromol/L)

· 72 hours of age: >13.5 mg/dL (231 micromol/L)

Special circumstances — Infants with clinical jaundice within the first 24 hours frequently have hemolysis. They require immediate evaluation and close surveillance to assess the need for phototherapy.

In infants with other causes of increased bilirubin production, such as cephalohematoma or extensive bruising, or in infants suspected of having genetic disorder of bilirubin conjugation (eg, Crigler-Najjar or Gilbert's syndromes), we start phototherapy when the hour-specific TB concentration is in the high intermediate risk zone (>75th percentile) (figure 2). The risk for severe hyperbilirubinemia and the threshold for intervention based upon the hour-specific bilirubin value may be determined using the newborn hyperbilirubinemia assessment calculator (calculator 1). (See "Pathogenesis and etiology of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in the newborn".)

Efficacy of phototherapy — Although there are no data showing that phototherapy improves neurodevelopmental outcome, phototherapy does reduce the likelihood that TB reaches a level associated with an increased risk of kernicterus or at which exchange transfusion is recommended [20,21]. (See "Clinical manifestations of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in term and late preterm

infants", section on 'Overview'.)

Intensive phototherapy results in a decline of TB of at least 2 to 3 mg/dL (34 to 51 micromol/L) within four to six hours. A decrease in TB can be measured as soon as two hours after initiation of treatment. In infants ≥35 weeks GA, 24 hours of intensive phototherapy can result in a 30 to 40 percent decrease in the initial TB [22]. With conventional phototherapy, a decline of 6 to 20 percent can be expected in the first 18 to 24 hours [11,23,24].

The efficacy of phototherapy in preventing a rise in TB to the exchange transfusion was demonstrated in a large retrospective cohort study of 281,898 infants born ≥35 weeks GA [25].

Overall, 23 percent of patients received phototherapy within 8 hours after reaching a TB within 3 mg/dL (51 micromol/L) of the AAP phototherapy threshold (figure 1). Only 1.6 percent (354 infants) ever exceeded the AAP exchange threshold (figure 3) and only three received exchange transfusions. Multivariate analysis demonstrated that lower GA and birth weight, younger age at the time TB level reached the phototherapy threshold, and a positive direct antiglobulin test (DAT) were associated with an increased risk in reaching the AAP exchange transfusion threshold. Based upon these results, phototherapy was found to be highly effective in preventing TB from rising to the AAP exchange transfusion threshold, especially in full-term infants who are appropriate size for GA, older than 48 hours at the time TB level reached the phototherapy threshold, and are not DAT positive.

The rate of decline of TB during phototherapy is affected by a number of factors [2].

· Increased irradiance increases the rate of TB decline.

· Greater surface area exposure to phototherapy increases the rate of TB reduction.

· The higher the initial TB, the more rapid is the rate of decline (as much as 10 mg/dL [171 micromol/L] within a few hours).

· Phototherapy is less effective in infants whose hyperbilirubinemia is due to cholestasis or hemolysis with a DAT than in infants with other causes.

Monitoring — During phototherapy, the dose of phototherapy (irradiance) and the infant's temperature, hydration status, time of exposure, and TB are monitored. Phototherapy may increase both the body and environmental temperature resulting in increased insensible fluid loss. LEDbased

devices emit low levels of heat, and thus fluid loss is less of a concern with these devices [8]. (See 'Hydration' below.)

The frequency of TB measurements depends upon the initial TB value. When infants are discharged and readmitted with TB values exceeding the 95th percentile for hour-specific TB levels [3] (figure 2), the TB measurement should be repeated two to three hours after initiation of phototherapy to assess the response. When phototherapy is started for a rising TB, which should be always at a lower initial TB values, TB should be measured after 4 to 6 hours and then within 8

to 12 hours, if TB continues to fall.

If, despite intensive phototherapy, the TB is at or approaches the threshold for exchange transfusion, blood should be sent for immediate type and cross-match. In addition, if exchange transfusion is being considered, the serum albumin level should be measured so that the serum bilirubin/albumin (B/A) ratio can be used in conjunction with the TB level and other factors to

determine the need for exchange transfusion. (See 'Exchange transfusion' below.)

Hydration — It is important to maintain adequate hydration and urine output during phototherapy since urinary excretion of lumirubin is the principal mechanism by which phototherapy reduces TB.

Thus, during phototherapy, infants should continue oral feedings by breast or bottle. For TB levels that approach the exchange transfusion level, phototherapy should be continuous until the TB has

declined to about 20 mg/dL (342 micromol/L). Thereafter phototherapy can be interrupted for feeding. (See 'Technique' above.)

Intravenous hydration may be necessary to correct hypovolemia in infants with significant volume

depletion whose oral intake is inadequate; otherwise, intravenous fluid is not recommended [2].

Breastfeeding — Breastfed infants whose intake is inadequate, with excessive weight loss (>12 percent of BW), or who have evidence of hypovolemia, should receive supplementation with expressed breast milk or formula [2]. The temporary interruption of breastfeeding with the substitution of formula may enhance the efficacy of phototherapy by decreasing the enterohepatic circulation of bilirubin [4,26,27]. (See"Pathogenesis and etiology of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in the newborn", section on 'Breastfeeding failure jaundice' and "Evaluation of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in term and late preterm infants", section on 'Breastfed infants'.) If breastfeeding is interrupted, it should be resumed as soon as possible. (See "Infant benefits of breastfeeding".)

Discontinuation — For infants who have been readmitted for phototherapy, we discontinue the phototherapy when the TB has reached 12 to 14 mg/dL (205 to 239 micromol/L). For those who required phototherapy during the birth hospitalization, phototherapy is started at a significantly lower level and, therefore, is stopped at a lower level. For these infants, we generally discontinue phototherapy when the TB has fallen to, or below, the level at which phototherapy was initiated because, by this time, the infant is significantly older and the level for initiation of phototherapy has,

consequently, increased. TB is measured 18 to 24 hours after phototherapy is terminated. This is important in infants who need phototherapy during their birth hospitalization but might not be necessary in those who have been readmitted where the risk of rebound is much lower. The readmitted infant should not be kept in the hospital pending measurement of rebound. If necessary, this can be done as an outpatient.

Although the value following discontinuation is known as the rebound bilirubin, typically it is lower

than the TB value before the initiation of phototherapy.

In one study of 161 infants with BW >1800 g, TB was significantly lower 17 hours after termination of phototherapy compared to TB at the time of termination (11.5 versus 12.2 mg/dL [197 versus 209 micromol/L]) [28].

However, in another study of 226 infants, which included 110 neonates with a positive DAT (Coombs test), 13 percent had rebound TB levels >15 mg/dL (257 micromol/L) [29]. Risk factors for significant rebound (TB levels;15 mg/dL) were initial phototherapy beginning .

Adverse effects — Phototherapy is considered safe. Side effects include transient erythematous rashes, loose stools, and hyperthermia. Increased insensible water loss may lead to dehydration.

Phototherapy is not associated with an increase in nevus count [30]. (See 'Hydration' above.)

The "bronze baby syndrome" is an uncommon complication of phototherapy that occurs in some infants with cholestatic jaundice. It is manifested by a dark, grayish-brown discoloration of the skin, serum, and urine [31]. Although the etiology of the bronze appearance remains unknown, it is proposed that the color is a result of impaired biliary excretion of bile pigment photoproducts due to

cholestasis [31,32]. The condition gradually resolves without sequelae within several weeks after discontinuation of phototherapy [33]. It remains controversial whether the bronze pigments have potential neurotoxic consequences. Although the effect of phototherapy on the eyes of infants is not known, animal studies indicate that retinal degeneration may occur after 24 hours of continuous exposure [34]. As a result, it is essential that the eyes of all neonates treated with phototherapy are sufficiently covered to eliminate any potential eye exposure.

EXCHANGE TRANSFUSION — Exchange transfusion is used to remove bilirubin from the circulation when intensive phototherapy fails or in infants with signs of bilirubin-induced neurologic dysfunction (BIND). The term ABE, or "acute bilirubin encephalopathy," is used to describe the acute manifestations of overt BIND. The term "kernicterus" is used to describe the chronic and permanent sequelae of overt BIND and differentiate these from the subtle signs observed in the syndrome of BIND [35]. Exchange transfusion is especially useful for infants with increased bilirubin production resulting from isoimmune hemolysis because circulating antibodies and sensitized red blood cells also are removed.

Although exchange transfusion is both expensive and time consuming, it is the most effective method for removing bilirubin rapidly. Exchange transfusion is indicated when intensive phototherapy cannot prevent a continued rise in the TB or in infants who already display signs indicative of BIND. Exchange transfusions should be performed only by trained personnel in a neonatal or pediatric intensive care unit equipped with full monitoring and resuscitation capabilities [2]. (See "Clinical manifestations of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in term and late preterm infants", section on 'Neurologic manifestations'.)

The need for exchange transfusions has decreased with the prevention of Rh isoimmune hemolytic disease and the systemic application of the AAP guideline for identification and treatment of infants

at risk for severe hyperbilirubinemia with phototherapy [36-38].

This was best illustrated in a study from a large Northern California health maintenance

organization of over 18,000 neonates with a gestational age ≥35 weeks born between 2005 and

2007 following the initiation of universal screening. In this cohort, only 22 patients (0.1 percent) had a TB level that exceeded the AAP recommended threshold for exchange transfusion [38]. 

A similar incidence was reported from a single institution with an exchange transfusion rate of 0.015 percent (8 of 55,128 inborn infants) between 1988 and 1997 [36]. (See "Evaluation of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in term and late preterm infants", section on 'Systematic approach' and 'Phototherapy indications' above.)

Morbidity and mortality — Because exchange transfusions are rarely performed, it is difficult to assess the current risks of morbidity and mortality associated with this procedure. Studies published in 1985 reported mortality rates of 0.3 percent associated with the procedure [39,40] and a significant complication rate of 1 percent [40]. More recent studies are limited by the number of patients due to the infrequency of the procedure.

· In the previously mentioned retrospective 21-year review, five of the 141 patients died within seven days of the exchange transfusion; however, none of the deaths appeared to be related to the procedure [37]. In this study, the most common complications were thrombocytopenia (38 percent of patients) and hypocalcemia (38 percent).

· In a retrospective study of 55 infants cared for at two neonatal intensive care units between 1992 and 2002, there was only one death, which was a critically ill preterm infant [41].

There was a high rate of complications including thrombocytopenia (44 percent), hypocalcemia (29 percent), and metabolic acidosis (24 percent).

· In another retrospective study published in 1997, which reviewed 106 patients who underwent exchange transfusion over 15 years from two NICUs, two patients died because of complications attributed to exchange transfusions. These two deaths occurred in patients classified as "ill," having other existing co-morbidities [42].

Procedure — The infant's circulating blood volume is approximately 80 to 90 mL/kg. A doublevolume exchange transfusion (160 to 180 mL/kg) replaces approximately 85 percent of the infant's circulating red blood cells with appropriately cross-matched reconstituted (from packed red blood cells and fresh frozen plasma) blood.

Irradiated blood products should be used to reduce the risk of graft versus host disease. In infants born to cytomegalovirus (CMV) seronegative mothers, CMV-safe blood products should be used.

(See "Red cell transfusion in infants and children: Selection of blood products".)

The procedure involves placement of at least a central catheter and removing and replacing blood in aliquots that are approximately 10 percent or less of the infant's blood volume. Exchange transfusion usually reduces TB by approximately 50 percent [43]. Infusion of albumin (1 g/kg) one to two hours before the procedure shifts more extravascular bilirubin into the circulation, allowing removal of more bilirubin, although this has not been shown to decrease the need for repeat exchange transfusion.

Indications — The following discussion on the indications for exchange transfusions for term and late preterm infants (≥35 weeks gestational age [GA]) is based upon the clinical practice guideline developed by the AAP [2]. Similar guidelines for term infants based on TB and postnatal age have been developed by the United Kingdom’s National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE guideline for Neonatal Jaundice). National guidelines have also been developed in Norway, which are based on TB values, birth weight (BW), and postnatal age [19].

Exchange transfusions are indicated in the following settings [2]:

· Jaundiced infants with signs of ABE, such as significant lethargy, hypotonia, poor sucking, or high-pitched cry, irrespective of the TB level. (See "Clinical manifestations of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in term and late preterm infants", section on 'Acute bilirubin encephalopathy'.) or

· Infants with a TB greater than threshold values established by the AAP (figure 3).

· Infants who have not yet been discharged from the birth hospital, exchange transfusion is recommended if the TB reaches the threshold level despite intensive phototherapy [2].

· Infants who have been discharged from the nursery to home and have TB concentrations that are approaching or exceed threshold values for exchange transfusion are initially treated with phototherapy. If TB remains above the threshold TB after about six hours of phototherapy, then exchange transfusion is indicated. This approach reduces the number of infants requiring an invasive therapy that has significant morbidity and mortality. (See 'Phototherapy' above.)

The risk for severe hyperbilirubinemia and the threshold for intervention based upon the hourspecific bilirubin value may be determined using the newborn hyperbilirubinemia assessment

calculator (calculator 1).

The following are general age-in-hours specific TB threshold values for exchange transfusion recommended by the AAP based upon gestational age and the presence or absence of risk factors (isoimmune hemolytic disease, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase [G6PD] deficiency, asphyxia, significant lethargy, temperature instability, sepsis, acidosis.

· For infants at low risk (≥38 weeks GA and without risk factors), exchange transfusion is indicated for the following TB values.

· 24 hours of age: >19 mg/dL (325 micromol/L)

· 48 hours of age: >22 mg/dL (376 micromol/L)

· 72 hours of age: >24 mg/dL (410 micromol/L)

· Any age greater than 72 hours: ≥25 mg/dL (428 micromol/L)

· For infants at medium risk (≥38 weeks GA with risk factors or 35 to 37 6/7 weeks GA without risk factors), exchange transfusion is indicated for the following TB values.

· 24 hours of age: >16.5 mg/dL (282 micromol/L)

· 48 hours of age: >19 mg/dL (325 micromol/L)

· ≥72 hours of age: >21 mg/dL (359 micromol/L)

The threshold for intervention may be lowered for infants closer to 35 weeks GA and raised for those closer to 37 6/7 weeks GA.

· For infants at high risk (35 to 37 6/7 weeks GA with risk factors), exchange transfusion is indicated for the following TB values.

· 24 hours of age: >15 mg/dL (257 micromol/L)

· 48 hours of age: >17 mg/dL (291 micromol/L)

· ≥72 hours of age: >18.5 mg/dL (316 micromol/L)

Infants who are close or meet the criteria for exchange transfusion should be directly admitted or transferred to the neonatal or pediatric intensive care unit. Referral should not be through an emergency department, because this delays the initiation of treatment [44]. Upon admission, a type and cross-match and placement of umbilical catheter are performed promptly, so that exchange transfusion can be started as quickly as possible. (See 'Technique' above.)

Special circumstances — In infants with isoimmune hemolytic disease and rising TB despite intensive phototherapy, administration of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) is recommended since it may avoid the need for exchange transfusion. (See 'Intravenous immunoglobulin' below.)

Exchange transfusion should be considered in infants receiving phototherapy who develop the "bronze baby" syndrome, if phototherapy has been ineffective in reducing TB below the threshold range for intensive phototherapy [2]. (See 'Adverse effects' above.)

Bilirubin/albumin ratio — The bilirubin/albumin (B/A) ratio can be used as an additional factor in determining the need for exchange transfusion; it should not be used alone but in conjunction with TB values [2,45]. (See "Evaluation of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in term and late preterm infants", section on 'Bilirubin/albumin ratio'.)

· For infants ≥38 weeks gestation, consider exchange transfusion when TB (mg/dL)/albumin (g/dL) ratio is >8.0 or TB (micromol/L)/albumin (micromol/L) is >0.94.

· For infants 35 to 37 6/7 weeks and well or ≥38 weeks with high risk (eg, isoimmune hemolytic disease or G6PD deficiency), consider exchange transfusion when TB (mg/dL)/albumin (g/dL) ratio is >7.2 or TB (micromol/L)/albumin (micromol/L) is >0.84.

· For infants 35 to 37 6/7 weeks with high risk (eg, isoimmune hemolytic disease or G6PD deficiency), consider exchange transfusion when TB (mg/dL)/albumin (g/dL) ratio is >6.8 or TB (micromol/L)/albumin (micromol/L) is >0.80.

Efficacy — After a successful procedure, TB typically falls to approximately one-half of the preexchange value, then increases to approximately two-thirds of that of the pre-exchange concentration because there is re-equilibration between extravascular and vascular bilirubin. Observational studies report that exchange transfusions decreased the risk for prominent neurologic abnormalities in term infants with TB >20 mg/dL (342 micromol/L) [46] and improved abnormal brainstem auditory evoked response (BAER) in infants with severe hyperbilirubinemia.

Risks — The risks of exchange transfusion result from the use of blood products and from the procedure itself. Complications include:

· Blood-borne infection

· Thrombocytopenia and coagulopathy

· Graft-versus-host disease

· Necrotizing enterocolitis

· Portal vein thrombosis

· Electrolyte abnormalities (eg, hypocalcemia and hyperkalemia)

· Cardiac arrhythmias

(See "Administration and complications of red cell transfusion in infants and children".)

As previously mentioned, the current morbidity and mortality rates associated with exchange transfusions are not known because the procedure is rarely performed [36]. Studies published in 1985 reported mortality rates of 0.3 percent associated with exchange transfusions [39,40] and a significant complication rate of 1 percent [40]. In a retrospective review of 15 years experience from 1981 to 1995 at two academic medical centers, 1 of 81 healthy infants developed necrotizing enterocolitis after exchange transfusion and none died [51].

PHARMACOLOGIC AGENTS — Pharmacologic agents, including IVIG, phenobarbital, ursodeoxycholic acid, and metalloporphyrins can be used to inhibit hemolysis, increase conjugation and excretion of bilirubin, increase bile flow, or inhibit the formation of bilirubin, respectively. However, currently only IVIG is used to treat unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia.

Intravenous immunoglobulin — IVIG can reduce the need for exchange transfusion in infants with hemolytic disease caused by Rh or ABO incompatibility [52-54]. Several systematic reviews and meta-analyses have shown that infants who received IVIG compared with the control group had a lower rate of exchange transfusions [52-56]. Avoiding exchange transfusion reduces the risk of any of its potential adverse effects; as a result, the administration of IVIG should be considered based on the relative benefits and risks of the two interventions.

IVIG (dose 0.5 to 1 g/kg over two hours) is recommended in infants with isoimmune hemolytic disease if the TB is rising despite intensive phototherapy or is within 2 or 3 mg/dL (34 to 51 micromol/L) of the threshold for exchange transfusion [2,55]. The dose may be repeated in 12 hours if necessary [2]. (See 'Exchange transfusion' above.)

The mechanism is uncertain, but IVIG is thought to inhibit hemolysis by blocking antibody receptors on red blood cells. (See "Overview of Rhesus (Rh) alloimmunization in pregnancy".)

Phenobarbital — Phenobarbital increases the conjugation and excretion of bilirubin and decreases postnatal TB levels when given to pregnant women or infants. However, prenatal administration of phenobarbital may adversely affect cognitive development and reproduction [57,58]. As a result, phenobarbital is not routinely used to treat indirect neonatal hyperbilirubinemia.

Ursodeoxycholic acid — Ursodeoxycholic acid increases bile flow and helps to lower TB levels. It is also useful in the treatment of cholestatic jaundice.

Metalloporphyrins — Synthetic metalloporphyrins, such as tin mesoporphyrin (SnMP), reduce bilirubin production by competitive inhibition of heme oxygenase [59-66]. There are limited data upon the safety of SnMP [66], and SnMP is not available for general use.

In one report, term infants with G6PD deficiency given SnMP at approximately 27 hours-of-age had lower and earlier peak TB values than did control infants with and without G6PD deficiency [59]. No treated infant required phototherapy, compared to 31 and 15 percent in the controls with and without G6PD deficiency, respectively.

In a systematic review of three randomized trials including 170 infants, short-term benefits of metalloporphyrin therapy included lower maximum TB, lower frequency of severe hyperbilirubinemia, decreased need for phototherapy, and shorter duration of hospitalization. None of the enrolled infants required exchange transfusion. None of the studies reported on kernicterus, death, or long-term neurodevelopmental outcome. SnMP is not approved for use in the United States.

OUTCOME — When infants with hyperbilirubinemia are identified and treated appropriately, the outcome is excellent with minimal or no additional risk for adverse neurodevelopmental sequelae [67-69]. This was illustrated in a prospective cohort control study of 140 infants with TB levels ≥25mg/dL (428 micromol/L) identified from a cohort of 106,627 term or late preterm infants [67]. The study group also included 10 infants with TB ≥30 mg/dL (513 micromol/L). Treatment of hyperbilirubinemia included phototherapy in 136 cases and exchange transfusions in five cases.

The hyperbilirubinemic infants compared with the control group had a greater proportion of infants
who were born <38 age="" and="" as="" asian="" at="" birth="" breastfed="" during="" exclusively="" follow-up="" follows:="" gestational="" hospitalization.="" p="" results="" two-year="" weeks="" were="">

· There were no reports of kernicterus in either the hyperbilirubinemic or control group.

· Formal cognitive testing was performed in 82 children with neonatal hyperbilirubinemia and 168 control children at 2 and 6 years of age. There was no difference between patients with hyperbilirubinemia and matched controls in cognitive testing, reported behavioral problems and frequency of parental concerns.

· On physical examination, patients with hyperbilirubinemia compared to control patients had a lower prevalence of abnormal neurologic findings (14 versus 29 percent). The degree and duration of hyperbilirubinemia had no effect on these outcomes.

· In a subset analysis, nine patients with hyperbilirubinemia and a positive direct antiglobulin test (DAT, Coombs test) had lower scores on cognitive testing than other patients with hyperbilirubinemia with a negative DAT. There was no difference between these two hyperbilirubinemic groups regarding the presence of an abnormal neurologic finding.

Similar findings were noted in a follow-up study from the Collaborative Perinatal Project of children (n = 46,872) at seven and eight years of age who were born ≥36 weeks gestation with a birth weight ≥2000 g between 1959 and 1966 [68]. Results showed an adverse effect on cognitive testing was only seen in children who had a TB ≥25 mg/dL (428 micromol/L) and a positive DAT result as neonates. TB in the absence of a positive DAT had no effect on cognitive testing.

Population-based studies have also reported observing no or limited chronic neurologic effects of

severe hyperbilirubinemia:

· In a report of all live-born births in Denmark from 2004 to 2007, results based on parental survey demonstrated no difference in development at one to five years of age between infants with at least one neonatal measurement of TB ≥25 mg/dL (428 micromol/L) from controls matched by gender, age, gestational age, and municipality of residency [70].

· In a study from Nova Scotia of 61,238 infants born between 1994 and 2000, there were no reported cases of kernicterus after implementation of treatment guidelines for hyperbilirubinemia in term and late preterm infants [69]. There were no differences in the overall neurologic composite outcome (cerebral palsy, developmental delay, hearing and vision abnormalities, attention-deficit disorder, and autism) in infants with severe (TB ≥19 mg/dL, 325 mmol/L) or moderate (TB ≥19 mg/dL, 325 mmol/L) hyperbilirubinemia compared to those without hyperbilirubinemia. However, subset analysis for each neurologic outcome suggested that some neurologic impairment might be associated with hyperbilirubinemia (see "Clinical manifestations of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in term and late preterm infants", section on 'Neurologic dysfunction')

These results support the AAP treatment guidelines for the management of hyperbilirubinemia in term and late preterm infants, especially the use of lower threshold values for intervention in infants

with a positive DAT.

INFORMATION FOR PATIENTS — UpToDate offers two types of patient education materials, “The Basics” and “Beyond the Basics.” The Basics patient education pieces are written in plain language, at the 5th to 6th grade reading level, and they answer the four or five key questions a patient might have about a given condition. These articles are best for patients who want a general overview and who prefer short, easy-to-read materials. Beyond the Basics patient education pieces are longer, more sophisticated, and more detailed. These articles are written at the 10th to 12th grade reading level and are best for patients who want in-depth information and are comfortable with some medical jargon.

Here are the patient education articles that are relevant to this topic. We encourage you to print or

e-mail these topics to your patients. (You can also locate patient education articles on a variety of

subjects by searching on “patient info” and the keyword(s) of interest.)

· Basics topics (see "Patient information: Jaundice in babies (The Basics)")

· Beyond the Basics topics (see "Patient information: Jaundice in newborn infants (Beyond

the Basics)")

A list of frequently asked questions and answers for parents is available through the American

Academy of Pediatrics (AAP): http://www.healthychildren.org/English/news/Pages/Jaundice-in-

Newborns.aspx

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

· The management of neonatal hyperbilirubinemia is focused upon prevention of severe

hyperbilirubinemia in identified high-risk infants and reduction of total serum or plasma

bilirubin (TB) in infants with severe hyperbilirubinemia. The risk for severe

hyperbilirubinemia and the threshold for intervention based upon the hour-specific bilirubin

value may be determined using the newborn hyperbilirubinemia assessment calculator

(calculator 1). (See 'Overview' above and "Evaluation of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in

term and late preterm infants".)

· Phototherapy is the most commonly used intervention to treat and prevent severe

hyperbilirubinemia. It is a safe and effective method to reduce the toxicity of bilirubin and

increase its elimination. (See'Phototherapy' above.)

· Phototherapy has been shown to reduce the risk of TB values reaching a level associated

with kernicterus and reduces the number of infants who reach a TB threshold for exchange

transfusions. (See'Efficacy of phototherapy' above.)

· We recommend phototherapy as the initial therapy to treat hyperbilirubinemia in term and

late preterm infants (Grade 1B). In our practice, we initiate phototherapy based upon the

guidelines developed by the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP).

(See 'Phototherapy' above.)

· In infants with hyperbilirubinemia due to isoimmune hemolytic disease, we recommend the

administration of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) if TB is rising in spite of intensive

phototherapy (Grade 1B). IVIG administration may avoid the need of exchange transfusion

in these patients. (See 'Intravenous immunoglobulin' above.)

· Exchange transfusion is the most effective method to lower TB. Although it is difficult to

ascertain the current risk of morbidity and mortality, there are reported serious

complications and deaths associated with the procedure.

· We recommend exchange transfusions in infants who exhibit clinical findings of bilirubininduced

neurologic dysfunction (BIND) (Grade 1B). We suggest exchange transfusion for

infants with TB that exceed threshold TB values based upon the guideline developed by the

AAP who have failed initial intensive phototherapy (figure 3) (Grade 2C). (See 'Exchange

transfusion' above.)

· When infants with hyperbilirubinemia are identified and treated appropriately, the outcome

is excellent with minimal or no additional risk for adverse neurodevelopmental sequelae.

(See 'Outcome' above.)

Use of UpToDate is subject to the Subscription and License Agreement.

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ARTICULO MEDICO:Systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) and sepsis in children: Definitions, epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis

Systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) and sepsis in children: Definitions,

epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis

Authors

Wendy J Pomerantz, MD, MS

Scott L Weiss, MD

Section Editors

Susan B Torrey, MD

Sheldon L Kaplan, MD

Adrienne G Randolph, MD, MSc

Deputy Editor

James F Wiley, II, MD, MPH

Disclosures

All topics are updated as new evidence becomes available and our peer review process is

complete.

Literature review current through: Jan 2013. | This topic last updated: dic 11, 2012.

INTRODUCTION — Sepsis is a clinical syndrome that complicates severe infection and is

characterized by the systemic inflammatory response syndrome, immune dysregulation,

microcirculatory derangements, and end-organ dysfunction. In this syndrome, tissues remote from

the original insult display the cardinal signs of inflammation, including vasodilation, increased

microvascular permeability, and leukocyte accumulation.

Although inflammation is an essential host response, the onset and progression of sepsis center

upon a "dysregulation" of the normal response, usually with an increase in both proinflammatory

and antiinflammatory mediators, initiating a chain of events that leads to widespread tissue injury.

Evidence supports a state of acquired immune suppression or immunoparalysis in some patients,

which may occur simultaneously with or following the initial proinflammatory response [1,2]. It is this

dysregulated host response rather than the primary infectious microorganism that is typically

responsible for multiple organ failure and adverse outcomes in sepsis. (See "Pathophysiology of

sepsis".)

Early recognition of sepsis is crucial to ensuring the best outcomes in children and is aided by a

working knowledge of the children at particular risk, the common pathogens, and the clinical

manifestations. The definition, epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis of the systematic

inflammatory response syndrome and sepsis in children are discussed here.

The rapid recognition, resuscitation, and initial management of pediatric septic shock and the

evaluation and management of undifferentiated shock in children are discussed separately:

· (See "Septic shock: Rapid recognition and initial resuscitation in children".)

· (See "Septic shock: Ongoing management after resuscitation in children".)

· (See "Initial evaluation of shock in children".)

· (See "Initial management of shock in children".)

DEFINITIONS — Definitions for sepsis and organ dysfunction for children have been developed by

the International Consensus Conference on Pediatric Sepsis [3]. These definitions are important for

the standardization of observational studies and in the evaluation of therapeutic interventions in

clinical trials. They may also be useful in helping clinicians determine the severity of a child's illness

and in monitoring clinical progression and response to therapy. However, it should be noted that

clinical concern for sepsis should not be limited to pre-defined cut-points for physiologic or

laboratory abnormalities [4]. As an example, in an observational study of 1729 children younger

than 18 years of age who were admitted to an intensive care unit, only two-thirds of children treated

for severe sepsis or septic shock also met consensus criteria at the time of clinical diagnosis [5].

Thus, clinical suspicion for sepsis often occurs even though all components of the consensus

criteria are not present.

Infection — Infection is defined as a suspected or proven infection caused by any pathogen.

Infections can be proven by positive culture, tissue stain, or polymerase chain reaction test. The

definition also includes clinical syndromes associated with a high probability of infection, such as

petechiae and purpura in a child with hemodynamic instability, or fever, cough, and hypoxemia in a

patient with leukocytosis and pulmonary infiltrates on chest radiograph.

Systemic inflammatory response syndrome — The systemic inflammatory response syndrome

(SIRS) is a widespread inflammatory response that may or may not be associated with infection.

The presence of two or more of the following criteria (one of which must be abnormal temperature

or leukocyte count) defines SIRS (table 1) [3]:

· Core temperature (measured by rectal, bladder, oral, or central probe) of >38.5ºC or <36 div="">

· Tachycardia, defined as a mean heart rate more than two standard deviations above normal

for age, or for children younger than one year of age, bradycardia defined as a mean heart

rate <10th age="" div="" for="" percentile="">

· Mean respiratory rate more than two standard deviations above normal for age or

mechanical ventilation for an acute pulmonary process

· Leukocyte count elevated or depressed for age, or >10 percent immature neutrophils

Age groups — The consensus panel used age-related physiologic and laboratory values to modify

definitions that had been developed for adult patients [6]. Six age groups for age-specific vital signs

(heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure) and laboratory variables (leukocyte count) are

identified (table 1):

· Newborn: 0 days to 1 week

· Neonate: 1 week to 1 month

· Infant: 1 month to 1 year

· Toddler and preschool: >1 to 5 years

· School age child: >5 to 12 years

· Adolescent and young adult: >12 to <18 div="" years="">

Sepsis — The systemic inflammatory response syndrome in the presence of suspected or proven

infection constitutes sepsis. Several definitions further describe sepsis in terms of severity and

response to therapy.

Severity

· Severe sepsis – Sepsis is considered severe when it is associated with cardiovascular

dysfunction, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), or dysfunction in two or more

other organ systems as defined in the section on multiple organ failure below. The

diagnostic criteria for ARDS are discussed elsewhere. (See "Acute respiratory distress

syndrome: Clinical features and diagnosis", section on 'Diagnostic criteria'.)

· Septic shock – Septic shock refers to sepsis with cardiovascular dysfunction (as described

in the section on multiple organ failure below) that persists despite the administration of ≥40

mL/kg of isotonic fluid in one hour [3].

· Refractory septic shock – There are two types of refractory septic shock: fluid-refractory

septic shock exists when cardiovascular dysfunction persists despite at least 60 mL/kg of

fluid resuscitation; and catecholamine-resistant septic shock exists when shock persists

despite therapy with dopamine ≥10 mcg/kg per min and/or direct-acting catecholamines

(epinephrine, norepinephrine) [3].

· Multiple organ failure – Reliably identifying and quantifying organ dysfunction is useful for

tracking clinical changes and the response to therapy in children with septic shock. The

International Consensus on Pediatric Sepsis [3] developed criteria for organ dysfunction

based upon several scoring systems [7-9], taking into account a balance of specificity,

sensitivity, and widespread availability of laboratory tests.

· Cardiovascular – Hypotension, or reliance on a vasoactive drug to maintain blood

pressure, or two of the following: metabolic acidosis, elevated arterial lactate, oliguria,

or prolonged capillary refill

· Respiratory – Arterial oxygen tension/fraction of inspired oxygen (PaO2/FiO2)

<300 aco2="" arterial="" carbon="" dioxide="" tension="">65 torr or 20 mmHg over baseline

PaCO2, need for >50 percent FiO2 to maintain oxygen saturation ≥92 percent, or need

for nonelective mechanical ventilation

· Neurologic – Glasgow coma score ≤11 (table 2), or acute change in mental status

· Hematologic – Platelet count <80 50="" a="" decline="" div="" from="" microl="" of="" or="" percent="">

highest value recorded over the past three days or disseminated intravascular

coagulation (DIC), a consumptive coagulopathy diagnosed by clinical findings of

hemorrhage and microthrombi and laboratory abnormalities including

thrombocytopenia, prolongation of clotting times (PT and aPTT), and evidence of

fibrinolysis (low fibrinogen with elevated fibrin degradation products), which is a

common hematologic manifestation in sepsis. (See "Disseminated intravascular

coagulation in infants and children", section on 'Diagnosis'.)

· Renal – Serum creatinine ≥2 times upper limit of normal for age or twofold increase

in baseline creatinine

· Hepatic – Total bilirubin ≥4 mg/dL (not applicable to newborn) or alanine

aminotransferase (ALT) >2 times upper limit of normal for age

EPIDEMIOLOGY — Among resource-rich countries the best estimates regarding the incidence of

severe sepsis come from the United States where approximately 40,000 children develop severe

sepsis each year, an estimated annual incidence of 0.6 cases per 1000 population [10]. Respiratory

infection and primary bacteremia are found in almost two-thirds of cases of severe sepsis in this

population. Since 1960, mortality from pediatric severe sepsis has decreased from 97 percent to

approximately 4 to 10 percent in patients with severe sepsis [10,11] and 13 to 34 percent in patients

with septic shock [5,10-14]. (See "Septic shock: Ongoing management after resuscitation in

children", section on 'Overview'.)

Although worldwide estimates for severe sepsis are lacking, infectious diseases account for almost

60 percent of the 7.6 million annual deaths in children younger than five years of age [15]. The

majority of these deaths occur in developing countries in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.

Risk factors — Among infected children, septic shock, including refractory septic shock or multiple

system organ failure, is the most severe form (see 'Severity' above).

The following factors have been associated with an increased risk for septic shock [16,17]:

· Age younger than one month

· Serious injury (eg, major trauma, burns, or penetrating wounds)

· Chronic debilitating medical condition (eg, static encephalopathy with quadriplegia and

frequent aspiration pneumonia, uncorrected congenital heart disease, short gut syndrome)

· Host immunosuppression (malignancy, human immunodeficiency virus infection, severe

malnutrition, congenital immunodeficiency, sickle cell disease and other disease with

splenic dysfunction, or immunomodulating medications [eg, chemotherapy])

· Large surgical incisions

· In-dwelling vascular catheters or other invasive devices (eg, endotracheal tube, Foley

catheter, chest tube)

· Urinary tract abnormalities with frequent infection

In contrast, routine immunization of infants against Haemophilus influenzae type b

and Streptococcus pneumoniae has resulted in a dramatic decrease in the incidence of invasive

disease in young children due to these organisms. (See "Pneumococcal (Streptococcus

pneumoniae) conjugate vaccines in children", section on 'Invasive disease' and "Prevention of

Haemophilus influenzae infection", section on 'Efficacy/effectiveness'.)

PATHOGENS — Sepsis can be caused by bacterial, viral, fungal, parasitic, and rickettsial

infections. Bacteria and viruses are the most frequently identified pathogens.

Bacteria — Although the frequency of specific pathogenic organisms varies from institution to

institution, the most common bacterial pathogens isolated from children with severe sepsis include

[10,18-23]:

· Staphylococcus aureus including methicillin-resistant strains (MRSA)

· Coagulase-negative Staphylococcus especially in neonates or young infants with indwelling

vascular catheters

· Streptococcus pneumoniae

· Streptococcus pyogenes

· Group B streptococcus in the neonate

· Pseudomonas aeruginosa including carbapenem-resistant strains

· Escherichia coli, including those with extended spectrum beta-lactamase activity (ESBL)

· Enterococcus species, including vancomycin-resistant species

· Klebsiella species, including those with ESBL activity

· Alpha streptococcus in children with acute myelogenous leukemia with mucositis and

neutropenia

Although less common, meningococcal infections, especially in unimmunized populations, and the

toxic shock syndrome caused by toxin-producing strains of Staphylococcus

aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes, remain important additional causes of sepsis in children.

(See "Clinical manifestations of meningococcal infection" and "Staphylococcal toxic shock

syndrome" and "Epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis of streptococcal toxic shock

syndrome".).

Factors that alter the prevalence of causative pathogens include age, immunocompromise, and the

presence of an in-dwelling vascular catheter:

· In young infants three months of age or younger, gram-negative organisms,

particularly Escherichia coli, and Group B streptococcus are most frequently

isolated. Staphylococcus aureus is also a frequent pathogen. (See "Definition and etiology

of fever in neonates and infants (less than three months of age)", section on 'Bacterial

pathogens'.)

· In patients with sepsis and febrile neutropenia, both gram-positive (eg, coagulase-negative

Staphylococcus, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus

viridians) and gram-negative organisms (eg, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli,

Klebsiella species) are common. Other gram-negative organisms, including Enterobacter,

Citrobacter, and Acinetobacter species andStenotrophomonas maltophilia, also occur

though less frequently. MRSA and multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacteria, such as

certain strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and ESBL-producing organisms, are frequently

isolated. (See "Fever in children with chemotherapy-induced neutropenia", section on

'Etiology of fever'.)

· In hospital-acquired bacterial infections, such as catheter-associated bloodstream

infections, coagulase-negative Staphylococcus is the most commonly isolated organism,

followed by Gram negative organisms.

Viruses — Viral pathogens can mimic bacterial sepsis. Etiologies include respiratory viruses (eg,

influenza, parainfluenza, adenovirus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and human

metapneumovirus) and Dengue virus, a mosquito-borne pathogen that can cause Dengue shock

syndrome. While these viruses, especially pandemic H1N1 influenza strain, may cause the sepsis

syndrome in isolation, the presence of bacterial co-infections, particularly methicillinresistant

Staphylococcus aureus, should be suspected in patients with severe sepsis or septic

shock. In immunocompromised patients, EBV, CMV, and adenovirus may also cause sepsis.

(See "Clinical presentation and diagnosis of dengue virus infections", section on 'Clinical

presentation' and "Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of pandemic H1N1 influenza ('swine

influenza')", section on 'Bacterial superinfection'.)

Herpes simplex virus (HSV), enterovirus and adenovirus infection in neonates and young infants

can be indistinguishable from bacterial sepsis. Characteristic vesicular lesions (skin, eye, or mucus

membrane) suggesting the diagnosis of herpes simplex may be absent in 30 to 40 percent of

infected infants. Most neonates become symptomatic with the first three weeks of life. Nonspecific

clinical manifestations include (see "Neonatal herpes simplex virus infection: Clinical features and

diagnosis", section on 'Clinical manifestations'):

· Disseminated disease – Respiratory collapse, liver failure, and disseminated intravascular

coagulation

· Central nervous system disease – Seizures, lethargy, irritability, and bulging fontanelle

Fungi — Fungal infections, especially candida species, have been reported in 10 percent of

pediatric patients with severe sepsis and septic shock [10]. Fungal sepsis is more common in

children with certain risk factors including [24]:

· Malignancy or other immunocompromising medical conditions

· Indwelling vascular catheters

· Prolonged neutropenia (>4 to 7 days)

· Recent broad-spectrum antibiotic use

Other pathogens — Parasitic (eg, malaria) and Rickettsial infections (eg, Rocky Mountain spotted

fever) may present with sepsis and should be suspected based upon the local prevalence of

disease and travel history. (See "Clinical manifestations of malaria", section on 'Clinical

manifestations' and "Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of Rocky Mountain spotted fever",

section on 'Clinical manifestations'.)

Culture-negative sepsis — Between approximately 30 and 75 percent of children with sepsis have

no infectious etiology identified [5,17,18]. This “culture-negative” sepsis may indicate host response

to bacterial components, such as endotoxin, in the circulatory system or result from antibiotic

treatment prior to obtaining bacterial cultures.

Alternatively, current diagnostic tests may not be sufficiently sensitive to detect the inciting pathogen

in all cases. Newer molecular diagnostic techniques, such as multiplex polymerase chain reaction

(PCR), have the potential to improve the rate of organism identification. As an example, in a study

comparing multiplex PCR to routine blood culture in 1673 samples obtained from 803 children with

suspected sepsis, the rate of positive results was significantly higher with PCR than blood culture

(15 versus 10 percent, respectively) with significantly fewer contaminants (2 versus 6 percent,

respectively) [25].

CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS — 

Children with sepsis have significant alterations in vital signs and

white blood cell count indicating a systemic inflammatory response (SIRS) in the presence of

clinical or laboratory findings of infection. Shock and other organ dysfunction often accompany

signs of sepsis.

Physical findings

Infection — Infection is typically suggested by physical findings such as petechiae and purpura in a

child with shock, or fever, cough, and hypoxemia in a patient with leukocytosis and pulmonary

infiltrates on chest radiograph (table 3). Infections can also be proven by positive culture, tissue

stain, or polymerase chain reaction test. However, these results are frequently not available during

the initial phase of treatment. Furthermore, in up to 60 percent of patients with sepsis, no pathogen

is identified. (See 'Pathogens' above and 'Laboratory studies' below.)

Systemic inflammatory response syndrome — As defined above, the systemic inflammatory

response syndrome (SIRS) is present when a child has an abnormality of temperature (fever or

hypothermia) or age-specific abnormality of the white blood cell count and one of the following:

tachycardia, bradycardia, respiratory distress, or pulmonary condition requiring mechanical

ventilation (table 1). (See 'Systemic inflammatory response syndrome' above.)

Among these criteria for SIRS, the presence of fever and tachypnea or fever and abnormal white

blood cell count are most common. In an observational study of 92 hospitalized children with SIRS,

these two presentations were found in approximately 75 and 50 percent of patients, respectively

[26].

Shock — Evidence of inadequate tissue perfusion and oxygen delivery with or without hypotension

often accompanies sepsis in children. In infants and children, tachycardia is a sensitive, though

non-specific, indicator often seen in early stages of shock. Hypotension is a late sign of shock in

infants and children who are better able to maintain blood pressure than adults through an increase

in heart rate, systemic vascular resistance, and venous tone. (See "Physiology and classification of

shock in children", section on 'Common features'.)

Other clinical findings of shock vary depending upon whether the patient has distributive (“warm”)

shock or “cold” shock (see "Physiology and classification of shock in children", section on 'Common

features'):

· Distributive (“warm”) shock – Distributive shock is characterized by hyperdynamic (or

high output) physiology with decreased systemic vascular resistance and elevated cardiac

output as manifested by the following findings (see "Physiology and classification of shock

in children", section on 'Distributive shock'):

· Flash capillary refill (<1 div="" second="">

· Bounding pulses

· Warm, dry extremities

· Wide pulse pressure (typically greater than 40 mmHg in older children and adults;

lower pulse pressures may reflect widening in infants and neonates)

· Cold shock – “Cold” shock reflects increased systemic vascular resistance and decreased

cardiac output as indicated by the following signs (see "Physiology and classification of

shock in children", section on 'Hypovolemic shock'):

· Delayed capillary refill (>2 seconds)

· Diminished pulses

· Mottled or cool extremities

Other physical findings — Additional clinical findings in infants and children with sepsis may

indicate a primary site of infection or arise from organ dysfunction caused by inadequate perfusion

and include [27]:

· Toxic or ill appearance

· Signs of dehydration (eg, dry mucus membranes, sunken eyes, decreased urine output,

prolonged capillary refill time, decreased skin turgor, and, in infants, a sunken fontanelle)

(table 4)

· Rigors

· Altered mental status (eg, irritability, anxiety, confusion, lethargy, somnolence)

· Decreased tone in neonates and infants

· Seizures

· Meningismus

· Respiratory depression or failure

· Pulmonary rales or decreased breath sounds caused by bronchopneumonia

· Distended, tender abdomen (eg, perforated viscus or intraabdominal abscess)

· Costovertebral angle tenderness (eg, pyelonephritis)

· Macular erythema (toxic shock syndrome) (picture 1 and picture 2)

· Skin cellulitis or abscess (picture 3)

· Peripheral edema caused by capillary leak

· Petechiae or purpura suggesting either a specific infectious source (eg, meningococcemia,

rickettsial infection) or disseminated intravascular coagulopathy (picture 4 and picture 5)

· Multiple nodules which can be seen with disseminated S.aureus or fungal infections (picture

6)

Laboratory studies — Children with suspected sepsis should undergo the following laboratory

studies:

· Rapid blood glucose – Hypoglycemia may accompany the metabolic demands and

decreased oral intake associated with sepsis in children, especially in neonates and infants.

Stress hyperglycemia may be noted initially and has been most carefully studied in

meningococcemia in children [28].

· Arterial blood gas or venous blood gas and pulse oximetry – Patients with sepsis

frequently have inadequate tissue perfusion with lactic acidosis. Hypoxemia from

bronchopneumonia or pulmonary edema may also occur.

· Complete blood count with differential (including platelet count) – Age-specific

leukocytosis or leukopenia are a criteria for pediatric SIRS (table 1). In addition,

neutrophilia, neutropenia, or thrombocytopenia may indicate acute infection. (See "Causes

of neutrophilia", section on 'Acute infection'.)

· Blood lactate – Elevation of blood lactate (>3.5 mmol/L) obtained by arterial puncture or

from an indwelling vascular cannula may help identify the presence and severity of septic

shock at presentation. Although evidence is limited in children, reduction in serum or blood

lactate levels have been associated with improved survival in adults with shock [29,30].

Preliminary results in an observational study of blood lactate levels in 239 children with

SIRS also suggest that venous blood lactate >4 mmol/L at initial presentation is associated

with progression to organ dysfunction at 24 hours [31]. Rapid determination of blood lactate

may be obtained at the bedside. (See "Initial management of shock in children", section on

'Physiologic indicators and target goals'.)

· Serum electrolytes – Electrolyte disturbances (eg, hyponatremia, hyperkalemia,

hypokalemia, and hypophosphatemia) may accompany disease processes associated with

sepsis and septic shock, such as syndrome of inappropriate anti-diuretic hormone

secretion, gastroenteritis, and capillary leak.

· Blood urea nitrogen and serum creatinine – Elevation in blood urea nitrogen may

indicate dehydration. Elevation in creatinine may reflect prerenal azotemia. Serum

creatinine ≥2 times upper limit of normal for age or twofold increase in baseline creatinine

defines renal dysfunction in the setting of sepsis. (See 'Sepsis' above.)

· Serum calcium – Hypocalcemia (ionized calcium <1 .1="" affect="" div="" may="" mmol="" myocardial="">

function and vascular tone and should be corrected if present. If serum calcium is

abnormal, serum phosphorus and magnesium should also be measured.

· Serum total bilirubin and alanine aminotransferase – Total bilirubin ≥4 mg/dL (not

applicable to newborn) or alanine aminotransferase (ALT) >2 times upper limit of normal for

age indicates liver dysfunction in the setting of sepsis. (See 'Sepsis' above.)

· Prothrombin time (PT), partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), international normalized

ratio (INR) – Elevation in PT and aPTT or INR suggests disseminated intravascular

coagulopathy (DIC).

· Fibrinogen and D-dimer – Decreased fibrinogen and increased D-dimer support the

presence of a consumptive coagulopathy and DIC.

· Blood culture– Given the high prevalence of bacterial bloodstream infections in children

with sepsis, blood cultures should be obtained in all patients, preferably before antibiotics

are administered.

· Urinalysis – The presence of bacteria, nitrites, or pyuria suggests a urinary tract infection.

· Urine culture – Urinary tract infection is a common source of infection in children with

sepsis and catheterized urine cultures should be obtained in all patients, preferably before

antibiotic administration.

· Other cultures – Other cultures (eg, cerebrospinal fluid, wound culture, aspirated fluid from

an abscess collection) should be obtained as indicated by clinical findings.

· Diagnostic serologic testing – For some infections (eg, herpes simplex virus, enterovirus,

influenza), other diagnostic testing (eg, viral culture, polymerase chain reaction, rapid

immunoassay antigen test, or direct and immunofluorescent antibody staining) may be

helpful to establish the source of infection. The user is referred to UpToDate topics on

clinical manifestations and diagnosis of the specific infection suspected for guidance on

diagnostic testing.

Inflammatory biomarkers, such as C-reactive protein and procalcitonin, may be useful in select

cases, but routine testing is not currently recommended [32,33]. For example, procalcitonin and Creactive

protein may be useful in predicting serious bacterial infection infants and young children

who present to an emergency department with fever with no apparent source of infection [34,35]. It

may also be useful in predicting bacterial infection in patients with fever and neutropenia [36,37].

(See "Evaluation and management of fever in the neonate and young infant (less than three months

of age)", section on 'Inflammatory mediators'.)

Imaging — Children with tachypnea, rales, wheezing, hypoxemia, or white blood cell count greater

than 20,000/mm3 warrant a chest radiograph to assess for bronchopneumonia, pulmonary edema,

and heart size. Cardiomegaly suggests fluid overload or congenital heart disease.

Other imaging may be appropriate depending upon clinical findings. For example, computed

tomography of the head may be necessary in the patient with evidence of coagulopathy and altered

mental status to evaluate for intracranial hemorrhage; ultrasound or computed tomography of the

abdomen may be indicated to evaluate for intra-abdominal abscess.

DIAGNOSIS — The diagnosis of sepsis is made in children with suspected or proven infection who

meet two or more criteria for SIRS (table 1). Pneumonia, bloodstream, skin, or urinary tract

infections, and, less commonly, meningitis comprise the most common infections in children with

sepsis. (See 'Systemic inflammatory response syndrome' above and 'Clinical

manifestations' above.)

Sepsis is primarily a clinical diagnosis. Clinical manifestations typically progress along a continuum

of severity from sepsis to severe sepsis (sepsis plus cardiac, respiratory, or dysfunction in two or

more other organ systems), septic shock (persistent hemodynamic instability despite initial fluid

therapy), and multiple organ failure. (See 'Severity' above.)

When suspected, the clinician must rapidly respond to signs of hemodynamic instability, organ

dysfunction, and administer antibiotics to ensure optimal outcomes. (See "Septic shock: Rapid

recognition and initial resuscitation in children", section on 'Resuscitation'.).

DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS — All children with findings consistent with sepsis warrant goaldirected

therapy and antibiotic administration pending documentation of an infectious etiology.

However, several conditions may have similar clinical manifestations, and, once clinical stabilization

has occurred, an alternative etiology to sepsis may be evident based upon careful review of clinical

findings.

In neonates and young infants, alternative diagnoses include:

· Child abuse (eg, abusive head trauma)

· Hypoglycemia

· Environmental hyperthermia

· Seizures

· Congenital heart disease, particularly left-sided obstructive lesions (eg, aortic coarctation,

hypoplastic left heart syndrome) presenting in patients less than two weeks of age

· Cardiac arrhythmias (primarily supraventricular tachycardia)

· Myocarditis or primary cardiomyopathy

· Inborn errors of metabolism

· Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

· Malrotation with volvulus

· Intussusception

· Pyloric stenosis

· Posterior urethral valves

· Necrotizing enterocolitis

· Gastroenteritis with dehydration

· Water intoxication

· Toxic exposures (eg, methemoglobinemia or carbon monoxide poisoning),

· Acute bilirubin encephalopathy

Detailed history, physical examination, and selected diagnostic studies frequently can differentiate

these conditions from sepsis. The approach to the septic-appearing infant is discussed separately.

(See"Approach to the septic-appearing infant".)

Among older children and adolescents the following conditions can cause elevated temperature

with tachycardia or hemodynamic instability:

· Heat stroke – The diagnostic criteria for patients with heatstroke are elevated core

temperature (≥40ºC [104ºF]) and central nervous system (CNS) abnormalities following

environmental heat exposure. Other typical clinical manifestations include tachycardia,

tachypnea, flushed and warm skin, diaphoresis, and coagulopathy. Exposure to excessive

ambient heat is present on history. The height of the fever may exceed 41°C (105.8°C) and

an infectious prodrome or source of infection is absent. (See "Heat stroke in children",

section on 'Clinical features' and "Heat stroke in children", section on 'Differential

diagnosis'.)

· Serotonin syndrome – Hyperthermia commonly occurs in patients with serotonin

syndrome, a potentially life-threatening condition associated with increased serotonergic

activity in the central nervous system (CNS). Serotonin syndrome encompasses a spectrum

of disease where the intensity of clinical findings is thought to reflect the degree of

serotonergic activity. Mental status changes can include anxiety, agitated delirium,

restlessness, and disorientation. Patients may startle easily. Autonomic manifestations can

include diaphoresis, tachycardia, hyperthermia, hypertension, vomiting, and diarrhea.

Neuromuscular hyperactivity can manifest as tremor, muscle rigidity, myoclonus,

hyperreflexia, and bilateral Babinski sign. Hyperreflexia and clonus are particularly

common; these findings, as well as rigidity, are more often pronounced in the lower

extremities.

The recognition that the patient has been exposed to a serotonergic drug is essential to the

diagnosis. (See "Serotonin syndrome".)

· Neuroleptic malignant syndrome – Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) is an

idiosyncratic reaction to antipsychotic agents. In addition to hyperthermia, NMS is also

characterized by "lead pipe" muscle rigidity, altered mental status, choreoathetosis, tremors,

and evidence of autonomic dysfunction, such as diaphoresis, labile blood pressure, and

arrhythmias. The history of antipsychotic drug exposure is a key component of the

diagnosis. (See "Neuroleptic malignant syndrome".)

· Malignant hyperthermia – Malignant hyperthermia is a rare genetic disorder that

manifests following exposure to certain agents, most commonly succinylcholine and

halothane. Other potent inhalational anesthetics (eg, sevoflurane, desflurane, isoflurane)

can also cause malignant hyperthermia. The onset of malignant hyperthermia is usually

within one hour of the administration of general anesthesia, but rarely, may be delayed up

to 10 hours after induction. Clinical manifestations include hypercapnia, hyperthermia,

tachycardia, masseter muscle rigidity, and rhabdomyolysis. (See "Malignant hyperthermia:

Clinical diagnosis and management of acute crisis".)

· Toxic overdose – Drug-related causes of hyperthermia, tachycardia, shock, and multiple

organ dysfunctions include overdose of cocaine, methamphetamine or related compounds

(eg, bath salts), amphetamine, MDMA [ecstasy], salicylates, anticholinergic agents and

withdrawal from opioid or benzodiazepine medications. A history of drug exposure, an

elevated salicylate level, or a positive toxicology screen for drugs of abuse may be present.

(See "Cocaine: Acute intoxication" and "MDMA (ecstasy)

intoxication" and "Methamphetamine intoxication" and "Anticholinergic

poisoning" and"Salicylate poisoning in children and adolescents".)

· Kawasaki disease – Kawasaki disease is a clinical syndrome consisting of fever for ≥5

days and four of five physical findings (bilateral bulbar conjunctival injection, oral mucous

membrane changes (eg, injected lips or strawberry tongue), peripheral extremity changes

(erythema of palms or soles, edema of hands or feet, and eventual periungual

desquamation), rash, or cervical lymphadenopathy. Tachycardia is frequently present and

poor peripheral perfusion may occur, especially in infants. However, shock is unusual in

patients with Kawasaki disease. Shock may be present in up to 7 percent of children with

Kawasaki disease [38]. (See "Kawasaki disease: Clinical features and diagnosis", section

on 'Clinical manifestations'.)

· Baclofen withdrawal syndrome – Baclofen is chemically derived from the natural inhibitory

neurotransmitter gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) and binds to GABAb receptors that

inhibit neuronal excitation in the spinal cord [39]. Intrathecal baclofen has become an

established therapy for spasticity in children with cerebral palsy. The medication is delivered

by a programmable pump that is implanted in the subcutaneous layer of the abdomen.

Baclofen withdrawal may occur if the pump fails, the delivery catheter becomes occluded,

the medication runs out, or the amount of baclofen in the pump reservoir falls below 2 mL

[39,40].

One to three days after abrupt withdrawal of baclofen, the patient can develop marked

spasticity, muscle rigidity, seizures, hyperthermia, hypertension, pruritis and, in advanced

cases, rhabdomyolysis with multiple system organ failure and disseminated intravascular

coagulopathy [39,41,42]. These manifestations may be confused with other diseases

including sepsis, serotonin syndrome, or neuroleptic malignant syndrome [39,42,43].

The diagnosis of baclofen withdrawal is made when evaluation of the pump identifies an

empty or low drug reservoir or an unexpectedly full reservoir indicating tubing failure

[39,42]. Resumption of intrathecal baclofen delivery is the definitive treatment.

Benzodiazepine administration (eg, lorazepam) may temporarily control spasticity and

seizures until intrathecal baclofen can be reestablished. High-dose oral baclofen may also

be attempted but is frequently not effective.

SUMMARY

· The systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) is present when a child has an

abnormality of temperature (fever or hypothermia) or age-specific abnormality of the white

blood cell count and one of the following: tachycardia, bradycardia, respiratory distress, or

pulmonary condition requiring mechanical ventilation (table 1). (See 'Systemic inflammatory

response syndrome' above.)

· The systemic inflammatory response syndrome in the presence of suspected or proven

infection constitutes sepsis. Clinical manifestations typically progress along a continuum of

severity from sepsis to severe sepsis, septic shock, and multiple organ failure.

(See 'Sepsis' above and 'Severity' above.)

· Infection is typically suggested by physical findings such as petechiae and purpura in a

child with shock, or fever, cough, and hypoxemia in a patient with leukocytosis and

pulmonary infiltrates on chest radiograph (table 3). Infections can also be proven by positive

culture, tissue stain, or polymerase chain reaction test. However, these results are

frequently not available during the initial phase of treatment. Furthermore, in up to 60

percent of patients with sepsis, no pathogen is identified. (See 'Pathogens' above

and 'Laboratory studies' above.)

· Bacterial, viral, fungal, parasitic, and rickettsial infections can all cause sepsis. Common

bacteria that cause severe sepsis include Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus

pneumoniae, and gram-negative organisms. Viral pathogens can mimic bacterial sepsis,

especially herpes simplex virus infection and enterovirus in neonates (≤28 days of age).

However, the presence of bacterial co-infections, particularlyStaphylococcus aureus, should

be suspected in patients with severe sepsis or septic shock. (See 'Pathogens' above.)

· Clinical findings of septic shock may include fever, a toxic or ill appearance, edema (as the

result of capillary leak), respiratory distress, altered mental status, and inadequate tissue

perfusion. Patients may have “warm shock” with decreased systemic vascular resistance

(SVR, bounding pulses and normal or flash capillary refill) or “cold shock” with poor

peripheral perfusion due to increased SVR (decreased capillary refill, decreased peripheral

pulses as compared with central pulses). (See 'Clinical manifestations' above.)

· All children with findings consistent with sepsis warrant timely antibiotic administration and

prompt initiation of goal-directed therapy pending documentation of an infectious etiology.

However, several conditions may have similar clinical manifestations, and, once clinical

stabilization has occurred, an alternative etiology to sepsis may be evident based upon

careful review of clinical findings. (See'Differential diagnosis' above.)

· The management of septic shock is discussed separately. (See "Septic shock: Rapid

recognition and initial resuscitation in children" and "Septic shock: Ongoing management

after resuscitation in children".)

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REFERENCES